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Learning to Labour by Paul Willis (學作工)

Page history last edited by 舒婷 11 years, 5 months ago

Paul E. Willis (1977) Learning to Labor: How working class kids get working class jobs, Gower Publishing Company.

有關Paul E. Willis (Wolverhampton, 1950~)

英國人,16歲完成學士和碩士學位(英文文學)22(1972)獲得伯明罕大學當代文化研究中心(CCCS)文化研究博士學位;至1981年,近10年期間擔任中心研究員(當時主任為Stuart Hall)27(1977)出版《學作工》。現於美國普林斯頓大學社會學系教書。

研究取向:大量運用民族誌方法,亦為重要期刊Ethnography創辦人之一。重要著作:除了《學作工》,另有《民族誌的想像》(Ethnographic Imagination)

《學作工》(Learning to Labor: How working class kids get working class jobs)

一、研究方法、時代背景等【完整翻譯可參照逸姿學姊的導讀摘要】

◎計畫起源:Willis1972年至1975年間所進行的一項計畫(由社會科學研究中心(SSRC)資助),研究工人階級小孩如何從學生過渡進入職場、如何從求學到就業。

◎研究對象:12Hammertown工人階級男孩,就讀男校(簡稱Hammertown Boys),不走升學路線。(全校約600人,亦包含其他族裔)【研究限制:族群/性別】

作者另參照5組對照組。除了前述12名,也從其他對照組找3位持續訪談。

◎研究時間:類似國內國二下學期→畢業後就業6個月。這群學生畢業那年,正是「提高離校年齡計畫(The Raising of the School Leaving Age, RSLA)」(1972)實施第一年:義務教育,法定學生可離校就業的年齡。i.e.要幾歲才叫成熟?可降低官方版失業率?

Why Hammertown: 原為英國中部一小村落,經歷過工業革命,現則為集合都市(industrial conurbation)一環。作者認為Hammertown是典型工業/工人階級城鎮,無論從歷史發展或產業別來看皆然(高達79%勞動人口皆從事製造、加工業,以金屬加工業為大宗;更有其他鄉鎮人口通勤至本地工作)。整體而言,即使在英國經濟衰退時期,就業市場仍欣欣向榮。有趣的是,雖然Hammertown大多數產業屬原物料加工製造,但公司組織、結構相當現代,不是小企業,而是大公司(雇用人數可超過1,000)

◎研究方法:質性研究取向─案例研究(case study)、訪談(interviewing)、小組討論(group discussions)、參與式觀察(participant observation)等。

 

二、名詞釋義

Counter-school culture (學校文化/)—opposition to authority

Conformists 乖乖牌vs. non-conformists

The lads 小子

Ear’oles 耳洞男(聽命於人)—always listening, never doing: never animated with their own internal life, but formless in rigid reception (ear as least expressive) (p.14)

Laff (laugh)/ dossing, blagging, wagging—fun, excitement vs. boredom

Missus (和女孩的關係/對性經驗的看法)

The informal, group (leader: Joey) vs. the formal, individual 

 

三、架構章節

動物園猩猩的故事(p.108);文化+意識形態

 

  1. Introduction

馬克思《政治經濟學批判大綱》(1857)引文:

Individuals cannot gain mastery over their own social interconnections before they have created them. But it is an insipid notion to conceive of this merely objective bond as a spontaneous, natural attribute inherent in individuals and inseparable from their nature....This bond is their product. It is a historic product. It belongs to a specific phase of their development....Universally developed individuals...are no product of nature, but of history.

【中文為讀書筆記或議題聯想,不完全是原文翻譯。(原文依英文呈現/標註頁碼)

    How working class kids get working class jobs: why others let them, and why they let themselves. (再生產) (p.1)

    勞動不是普同、超歷史、毫無變動的人類活動,它在不同社會脈絡中有不同形式及意義。(labouring is not a universal tranhistorical changeless human activity. It takes on specific forms and meanings in different kinds of societies.)勞動力如何被主體理解,如何遭客觀運用。/將勞動力(labour power)視為將內在接合至現實的橋樑(active connection with the world/ articulate the innermost self with the external reality/ the dialectic of the self to the self through the concrete world)(p.2)

    階級認同(class identity)必須同時從個人/群體的脈絡理解。

    除了是機制的再生產,也生產了某些利於再生產發生的條件(oxymoron: damnation but as a way to resist/ penetration with limitation and distortion) (p.3)

    三大發現/建議:有關教學/教育典範(educational paradigm),性別刻板印象如何體現於父權體制和資本主義,並進一步探討文化和意識形態如何作用。

 

Part I Ethnography民族誌 (大量的訪談、田野筆記及coding內容)

   2. Elements of a culture

Opposition to authority and rejection of the conformist

--刻意的「聚眾」座位、偷看漫畫或色情刊物,誇張的肢體語言/行徑—as if a group

--檯面下的旁白

--藉由laff展現優越感(Laff: fun, independence, excitement),或者,特別是在談論性經驗話題時展現優越感

--某些行徑其實私底下獲得(年輕)老師讚賞

--Lads象徵物:衣服、菸、酒(其中又以酒最為重要,最能彰顯並區隔)Lads使商品不僅是消費,使商品成為個人化的「物」(cf.董啟章《夢華錄》)。挑戰學校體制合法性、指涉成熟(性吸引力)(上學期間的)買醉被視為一種成長儀式、一種抵抗的方式,展現自己更為成熟、更符合真實世界(real life)的樣貌。

The informal group

--是反學校文化得以運作的基礎(counter-school culture is the zone of the informal)(p.22)

--反學校文化雖沒有明確架構、層級,但仍需立基於某種社會群體才行(It must have its own material base, its own infrastructure—the social group.) (p.23)

--being a lad meaning being one of the lads/一定是在團體的層級討論,不是個人主義。例:潛規則(朋友妻不可戲→是道義,不是規定”)、不可告密吐實(grassing)、知道什麼能/不能講(a kind of maturation, becoming worldliwise)、要打瞌睡也要一起睡才行等。

--藉此建立因應社會現實的另類地圖(to build up alternative maps of social reality),成為一種往後延伸連結至職場/工人階級的網絡(network)(p.26)

Dossing, blagging and wagging

--大哉問:教育政策中的能力分班/常態分班、上課方式,助長或消滅原有問題?

--曠課有很多種呈現方式,缺課(人不在班上)只是制度上一種不夠精準的評斷方式。(ie.心不在焉、偷打瞌睡等/展現個人流動性)

--學校每日課程表:掌控時間(何時上下課、按表操課),是學校展現權威之處,亦是小子們小破壞的重點。(時間的不同定義:對小子們而言,時間意味展現自我認同、自我掌控、與其他小子相處)

Having a laff

--“Even communists laff.”(Joey) /as one of defining characteristics: “we can make them laff, they can’t make us laff.”

--to defeat boredom and fear, to overcome hardship and problems—as a way out of almost everything

--the privileged instrument of the informal as the command of the formal

--“I think it’s just a good gift,...it can get you out of millions of things.”(Joey)

--如何laff?例:用手指在投影幕上比動物圖案、整年輕老師、或那些被認為笨的人(imagined stupidity)。用”piss-taking”方式懲罰:強烈粗野的言語和肢體動作。

Boredom and excitement

--無聊的反面:刺激,意即蔑視、打破規則,或喝酒,或偷竊→freedom

--打架—testimony--masculine reputation (p.35) / verbal or symbolic violence is preferred

--真實的打架體驗=masculinity

--認為工作比學校重要,也將工人階級工作視為真正的知識來源(不過即便如此,學校生活仍對他們產生影響)(p.38-39)

Sexism

--有關女性:both sexual objects and domestic comforters (p.43) ie.維多利亞時期女性:聖女或妓女/對女性的看法相當矛盾(a commodity, worthless vs. experienced, promiscuous)

--girlfriend (missus) vs. “easy lay” /因此,追求女朋友是認真的大事(courtship is a serious affair)

--女朋友的最佳典型是媽媽,但其中又夾雜男性沙文主義想法。

Racism

--高加索人(Caucasians)、亞洲人(Asians)以及西印地安人(West Indians)

--the informal group對不同種族的排擠/歧視;教職員內部的種族歧視問題(the informal was backed up by at least the ghost of the formal) (p.49)

--亞洲人最不討喜,因為「不乾淨」但又是標準乖乖牌(ear’oles)

 

  3. Class and institutional form of a culture

Class form (對畢業後在工作的小子們與其父母的訪談)

--counter-school culture / shopfloor culture 許多特質沿襲前者 例:笑話

(1) masculinity and toughness (a form of masculine chauvinism)

(2) attempt to gain informal control of the work process (掌控上課時程─掌控生產速度)

--經驗(實作),比理論重要。用得到的理論,才有用,否則不需要理論。(工人階級vs.中產階級不同的看法)

--social position, cultural location: much better mode for explaining social mobility than the mechanic undialectical notion of ‘intelligence’. (p.58-59)

Institutional form

--Circle: regional culture—class culture—the structure of society itself

Emergence of opposition

--如果第一年入學時大家都是耳洞男,反抗是如何/何時出現?(2~4年間:coming out as a lad, as a personal accomplishment) (p.60)

Differentiation and the teaching paradigm

--differentiation vs. integration (differentiation is the intrusion of the informal into the formal; integration is the progressive constitution of the informal into the formal or official paradigm)(p.63)

--師生關係實為一種交換(exchanges),把客觀交換轉換為moral commitment, humanism and social responsibility (real exchangesideal exchanges),道德立論的無限擴張;教室即戰場-winning and losing

學校運作的機制:fair exchanges (teaching/taught); maintenance of the axis (the educational paradigm),例晨會、position of the students

--作者兩種討論方式:from below/ from above

和家庭(父母)的關係─和學校的關係 (工人階級:確信勞動的價值;中產階級:相信唯有讀書高/學校的權威)

Post-differentiated relationships

 

  4. Labour power, culture, class and institution

Official provision (職業訓練/職涯規劃)

--Vocational guidance/ career education/ qualification施行效果?抵抗的態度 ”They’m clever in some ways, they’re clever with the maths and science and the English, but they ain’t clever in life. They’m underdogs to me.” (p.95)

Continuities

--work has to be a place, basically, where people are ‘alright’ and with whom a general cultural identity can be shared. (p.96)

--內化的分類:skilled or unskilled, white or blue collar.

They’re the civil servant types,...they’ll be the office workers” vs. “we’ve tasted not the good life, we’ve tasted, you know, the special life what you’d have when you are older.” (p.98)

Jobs

--對小子們而言,所有工作都是無趣的,只是為了錢。因此,如何在工作中保持laff、男性氣概,才是重點。如果對工作有期待、希望有成就感,是愚蠢的想法。工作就是勞動(all jobs mean labour),什麼工作都無所謂。

The self

--反學校文化→建立自我(self)、維持或發展相應的態度與生活方式。learning of a certain subjective sense of labour power and of the appropriate, essentially, way of giving it. (p.102)

--labouring in modern society is about subjective containment and not extension.

Joey:“...no job’s enjoyable ‘cos of the fact that you’ve got to get up of a morning and go out when you could stop in bed. I think every job’s got, has a degree of unpleasantness,...mek it as good and as pleasant as possible.”(p.102)

--manual >mental 選擇勞心工作似乎被視為一種服從的象徵,抵抗勞心工作就是抵抗權威(manual work as the exclusion of the ear’oles)(p.103)。因此,雖然勞力工作本質上是毫無意義的(intrinsic meaninglessness),但選擇勞力工作(manual work),是宣稱自由、展示權力,亦涉及心理狀態、對自我的定義。

Arriving (到底廠房文化在其中扮演的角色、作用機制)

--廠房文化(shopfloor culture)—extension of school

--作者:工人階級畢竟不是「從此過著幸福快樂的日子」,而是在嚴峻的現實環境中妥協的結果。因此,當小子們進入職場,逐漸體認工作困境,學校反而成為另一種逃避的處所。(ie.念研究所?)作者也提醒,反學校文化也許有助於小子們適應廠房文化,但學校終究無法代表社會/職場全景;等小子們發現困難,已經太遲、也無法及時因應了。這是個集體神話(collective myth),我們活在其中,渾然不覺;等到發覺問題,為時已晚。(p.108)

--“them & us”: 對「他們」(老闆、非小子)而言,也是默許或助長這種小子文化,因其再次確立原有權力與階級關係(power and hierarchy)(p.109)

進入Part II的結語:self-domination in the acceptance of subordinate roles in western capitalism; damnation experienced as a form of true learning, appropriation, and as a kind of resistance. (p.113)

 

Part II Analysis (分析:文化的滲透及限制+意識形態)

  5. Penetrations

Elements of analysis

--不只民族誌,而是更往內挖─詮釋模組

--透過滲透(penetrations)和限制(limitations)的概念進行分析

--“The cultural forms may not say what they know, nor know what they say, but they mean what they do—at least in the logic of their praxis. There is no dishonesty in interpreting that.” (p.126)

--contradictory double articulation: for an unfree condition to be entered freely/ promise the future in the oppressed present: “there is a moment in working class culture when the manual giving of labour power represents both a freedom, election and transcendence, and a precise insertion into a system of exploitation and oppression for working class people. The former promises the future, the latter shows the present.”(p.120) /讓人相信自己是自主的,以為自己有選擇。

--rational & creative: 作者對creativity新定義:以群組而非個人角度觀之;不是毫無限制,而是逐步進入自設圈套。(p.120-121)

--the informal group as the basic unit for cultural penetration (p.123)

--必須緊守資本主義信仰的中產階級,否則無以為繼:the working class does not have to believe the dominant ideology….What kind of bourgeoisie is it that does not in some way believe its own legitimations? That would be the denial of themselves….It would invite self-destruction as the next logical move. The working class is the only group in capitalism that does not have to believe in capitalist legitimations as a condition of its own survival. (p.123) cf. Paulo Freire; 女性主義邊緣→中心

--活生生的文化─實踐(praxis):不全是外加,部份從實踐中而來。例:以語言做為抵抗的方式,挑戰原本將語言視為抽象、精神生活的象徵。若將語言視為表意實踐,可延伸思考如何運用衣服、個人外表、風格等作為一種抵抗、游離或產生歧異的手段。(p.124-125)

Penetrations

Education and qualifications

--(1)反對傳統認為「有投資就有相對應報酬」概念─造成盲目順從;教育灌輸民主式謬論(fallacy):人人都有機會(但機會分配均等嗎?)

(2)學歷、證照,有效嗎?cf. Bourdieu談文化資本(p.127-128)

(3)個人社會攀升,成功了嗎?”To the individual working class person mobility in this society may mean something. To the class or group at its own proper level, however, mobility means nothing at all. The only true mobility at this level would be the destruction of the whole class society.”(p. 128) “…not all can succeed,…there is a generalization in the school from an individualistic logic to a group logic without a recognition of the very different nature and level of abstraction of the latter.” (p.129)

Labour power: a commodity like no other

--傳統談勞動(勞動力、薪資、剝削) vs. 作者談勞動:distorted freedom/ not mere suffering but a creative response to the demands of capitalism. (p.132)

General abstract labour

--(工業)資本主義世界以營利為圭臬,設立如何使用勞動的「典範」,而這種方法成為評斷所有行業的標準。

--如何定義時間?封建制度的線性循環時間觀vs.資本主義標準化、可計算的時間─每分每秒都要加緊把握,以時間換取抽象勞動力、貢獻市場換取金錢。這種對時間的新定義也產生意識形態效果:將社會同質化,把個案變通案,所有事物都能用這套標準衡量。Lads’ time vs. bourgeois time (ie.董啟章《時間繁史》)(p.134-145)

--paradox: 高科技=低技能?機器決定時間、決定生產,勞動的意義─不打擾機器生產。工人─「動素」(therbligs)─把人變成機器(to turn man into machine, to make robots of us all of the time) (p.136)

動素(Therbligs)是為了紀念吉爾伯斯夫婦,以他們的姓氏Gilbreth反向拼寫而成的創新字。他們將工人組裝的動作加以分類和命名稱為「動素」,依據動素可以分析工人的個活動,找到最佳的作業方式,並將之標準化,可以訂定標準工時。內文摘自這個網站

小結:如果這些「滲透」展現擾動能量、挑戰資本主義,為何仍不成氣候?

 

  6. Limitations

Divisions

--(1)勞心vs.勞力 (2)male and female (counter-school culture promotes its own sexism)/ girls: to be consumed and not to be consumed. (p.146)

Labour power and patriarchy

--勞心/勞力分工的意識形態有助於資本主義運作;每個人真正需求為何?無須細究。透過意識形態、唯才適用的觀點,使每人深信人生都該有目標,而且,還是同樣的目標。(p.147)

--作者提醒:透過賦予勞力工作不同意義,也許可視為小子們的一種反轉或抵抗形式,但別忘了,這種分工型態,只是再次強化、確立原有的主流結構。

--如何維持原有結構?作者分析:

(1)父權體制和勞心./勞力分工之共謀。(例,勞心:pen-pushing, cissy, pouf, poufer, wanker/ 耳洞男的成功被視為缺乏男子氣概)

(2)勞力工作:masculine—sensual—heroic。如果工作缺乏內在(重要性),父權體制概念則從外將其填滿。Men: breadwinner, worker; women: work for the extra.(p.149)

薪水─自由─男子氣概的獎賞─薪水戀物癖─衡量自己是不是男人─有別於女人,男人才作得到─薪水成為男子氣概象徵

--勞動在此被轉換成男子氣概邏輯,而非剝削。因此,勞動不是個自然/自有狀態,是調適的結果(accommodation)(p.150-151)

--masculinity-teleological-process (becoming) vs. femininity-ontological-(being) (p.151)

--女性不生產;生產的是男性

Racialism and labour power

--對移工/West Indians/Asians  dirty, disgusting?

--結構性失業→自願性失業?

 

  7. The role of ideology

◎外部因素/ideology produces and is partly produced by the cultural (p.160)

◎效力:confirm and dislocate

Confirmation

作者:ideology: turning the uncertain and fragile cultural resolutions and outcomes into a pervasive naturalism. (p.162)

案例:職涯介紹影片

--remain sexually divisive

--看似是常識,其實是「常識霸權(同意權)(hegemony of commonsense),把世界運作方式和工作型態(不當)連結,認為世界運作方式等同工作。(p.162)

--作者檢討:cultural penetration prevents any possible developments into an exploration….delivered into inertia an domination by being profoundly naturalized. It is the denial of history not the claiming of history, despite the promise of its break. (p.163)

Dislocation

--(1) ideological thrust: 不同的工作內容,確皆為勞動─剝削。(…million little ones pricking out the contours of the human condition/抵抗如何可能?/命名)

(2)職訓課程:提倡個人主義(forget your friends around you; be selfish) (p.164)

--“Suppression is recognized, but as no more than a random part of the human condition. Human nature, not capitalism, is the trap. Ideology has helped to produce that—though not simply from its own resources: it is believed, because it is partly self-made.” (p.165)

The internal interlocutor

--“It is the rule, it is the voice.”(p.166) powerful ideology vs. the internal interlocutor

--困境:以為自己是例外(exceptional),但其實仍在既有的框架裡 ie.陰性書 / phallogocentrism

--“them & us”: even the most “us” group or person has a little of “them” inside/ ideology is the ‘them’ in ‘us’.雖不脫意識形態介入其中,但這分野也是自己和週遭人互動而來(mediated and echoed around)(p.169)

 

  8. Notes towards a theory of cultural forms and social reproduction

    面對結構或經濟因素,並非毫無抵抗、全盤接受或服從;上層及下層結構之間有錯綜複雜的互動關係,不是古典的經濟決定論。

    試圖了解為什麼這些因素會變成因素─understand the understanding

    學習的過程/能動性(agency)

    文化的再生產,總是帶著生產另類方案的可能性(cultural reproduction, in particular, always carries with it the possibility of producing alternative outcomes)(p.172)

    從文化層面討論意識形態:(1)象徵系統及接合的使用(the use of symbolic systems and articulations)→產生歧異之必然。(2)文化產品和物質產品的關係。(3)提供如何建立主體性、確認自我認同的素材及脈絡。

    再生產的過程:(1)外在結構以象徵方式/關係體現(outside structures and basic class relationships are taken in as symbolic and conceptual relations)(2)這些結構提供人生選擇─如何選、怎麼選的框架。

    作者:將文化形式(cultural forms)納進思考是必要的,也是重要要件,是再生產過程中一環。該如何看待?作者提出悲樂觀兼具的看法─有扭曲、發現扭曲,就有反轉的可能(ie.命名/Foucault倒置的話語);體察必要的不確定性(recognize a necessary uncertainty)active appropriator in contested settlement; survival and replacement. (p.174-175)

    作者提醒:不要視為功能論、一體適用。

Reproduction and state institutions

--(1)同體制也可造成不同再生產。(2)體制的三層次:官方、實用及文化(official, pragmatic, cultural)

 

  9. Monday morning and the millennium

    ”…It is not a question of introducing from scratch a scientific form of thought into everyone’s individual life, but of renovating and making ‘critical’ an already existing activity.” Antonio Gramsci (p.185)

    不是歷史主義觀點,也不是把自在→自為視為理所當然。文化的政治化(politicization of culture)才是改變結構的先決條件。(If the cultural must become more political so must the political become more cultural.) (p.192-193)

    This may not be  the Millennium but it could be Monday morning. Monday morning need not imply an endless succession of the same Monday mornings.”(p.192)

 

Appendix

“At best, daily life, like art, is revolutionary. At worst it is a prison house. At worst, reflection, like criticism, is reactionary. At best it creates plans for escape.” (p. 194)

 

 

四、延伸討論

何明修 http://homepage.ntu.edu.tw/~msho/public.files/m34.pdf 

影響的四大面向:教育社會學(Althusser)、文化研究(Gramsci)、勞動研究、參與觀察及民族誌。

 

Paulo Freire Pedagogy of the Oppressed

【引文出自方永泉翻譯的《受壓迫者教育學》卅週年版(2007) 

Paulo Freire(1921-1997),巴西人。

「要求語言做到『單純化與清晰化』的這種世俗化籲求,它其實是更代表了一種對於理論性議題所具有之複雜性的忽視,特別是當那些理論建構的目標是為了質疑現有的宰制意識形態時。正是為了這個原因,史碧娃克(Gayatri Spivak)正確的指出,要求『平鋪直述的白話文』(plain prose)其實是一種『欺騙』,而我在這裡要進一步地說,『這種要求不只是一種欺騙,它也是一種漂白』。」(p.19)多納度‧馬賽多序

「窮人中存在著所謂的『緘默文化』(culture of silence)...其實是整個經濟、社會與政治宰制的情境─以及父權主義─的直接產物。...他們並不被鼓勵或是預備好去了解其所處的具體現實並對於現實作出回應,相反地,他們是『沉陷』於某個情境,在這樣的情境中,包含如批判性意識與回應在實踐上都變得不可能。」「我們社會中科技的進步,使得我們之中大部分的人都成為了『客體』,而且也很技巧地使我們必須規格化地符應整個體系的邏輯。就某個程度來說,我們也逐漸在一種新的『緘默文化』中沉淪。」(p.26, 30)理查‧蕭爾序

「牢記弗雷勒思想中的某些基本觀念:所謂的自由,仍然需要有權威,才能算得上真正的自由。因為教育應該是民主的紀律,而非任意的放縱。」(p.37)伊拉‧索爾台灣中文版序

「『教育是中立』的主張原本就是充滿政治性的。...教育根本就沒有獨立於政治之外的空間,甚至於我們還可以說,教育就是為了宰制者服務的,它是隸屬於現有政治體制之下的。」(p.45)譯者序

受壓迫者一同實現的。」(p.86)

「壓迫者既然是壓迫情境中的既得利益者,他們不會察覺到─當擁有成為存有的條件時,擁有也變成所有人的必要條件。這也就是為什麼壓迫者的慷慨是虛假的緣故。……作為壓迫者,他們並沒有知覺到其對擁有更多的獨佔,實際上是一種特權……。」(p.91-92)

「壓迫者的慷慨來自一種不公的秩序,對壓迫者而言,不公的秩序必須予以維持,才能夠使他們的慷慨行為被視為正當。」(p.93)

「受壓迫者之存在的雙重人格性─受壓迫者一方面是受壓迫者,一方面在他們心中又存在著經過內化的壓迫者形象。」(p.94)

受過教育的人就是一個適應良好的人,因為他們可以較其他人更『合適』於這個世界。當放在實際上來看,這種概念也可適用於壓迫者的目的。壓迫者的安穩是建立在受壓迫者能乖乖地適應於壓迫者所創造出來的世界,並盡量不要去質疑他。(p.113)

「教師不再只是那個教導的人,在其與學生對話的過程中,教師本身也受到了指導...。權威本身必須與自由站在同一方,而不是反對自由。因此,沒有人教另一個人,也沒有任何人是可以完全自己教自己(self-taught)的。」(p.117-118)

「當學生不斷地被問及與其生活於世界中以及其與世界之關係的相關問題時,他會逐漸感到被挑戰,並且也會被迫對於挑戰作出回應。他們領會到,在整個脈絡下,這個挑戰是與其他問題相互關連的。由於他們並不將它視成一種理論性的問題,結果會使得它們更具有批判力,並且也不再像以前一樣異化。學生對於挑戰的回應將會引起更多的新挑戰,緊跟著又有新的理解。」(p.119)

 

 

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